WHAT IS OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION Every cell needs a steady supply of usable energy, and for most living things, that energy comes packaged as ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of this energy-harvesting process — the point where the electrons stripped from food molecules during earlier metabolic steps get funneled through a chain of proteins,

What Is the Citric Acid Cycle? Some cells obtain energy (ATP) by fermentation, breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen. For most eukaryotic cells and many bacteria, which live under aerobic conditions and oxidize their organic fuels to carbon dioxide and water, glycolysis is but the first stage in the complete oxidation of glucose.

GLYCOLYSIS Glucose occupies a central position in the metabolism of plants, animals, and many microorganisms. It is relatively rich in potential energy, and thus a good fuel; the complete oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water proceeds with a standard free-energy change of −2,840 kJ/mol. By storing glucose as a high molecular weight polymer

MEMBRANE LIPIDS Membrane Lipids function to organize biological processes by compartmentalizing them. Indeed, the cell, the basic unit of life, is essentially defined by its enveloping plasma membrane. Moreover, in eukaryotes, many subcellular organelles, such as nuclei, mitochondria, chloroplasts, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus, are likewise membrane bounded. Biological membranes are organized assemblies

STORAGE LIPIDS Biological lipids (STORAGE LIPIDS) are a chemically diverse group of compounds, the common and defining feature of which is their insolubility in water. The biological functions of the lipids are as diverse as their chemistry. Fats and oils are the principal stored forms of energy in many organisms. Phospholipids and sterols are major

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF RNA The central dogma—that DNA makes RNA that makes protein—presented evolutionary biologists with a knotty puzzle: if nucleic acids are required to direct the synthesis of proteins, and proteins are required to synthesize nucleic acids, how could this system of interdependent components have arisen? One view is that an RNA world

DNA REPAIR DNA REPAIR :- Mutations include almost every conceivable permanent change in DNA sequence. The simplest mutations are switches of one base for another. There are two kinds: transitions, which are pyrimidine-to-pyrimidine and purine-to-purine substitutions, such as T to C and A to G; and transversions, which are pyrimidine-to-purine and purine-to-pyrimidine substitutions, such as

DNA RECOMBINATION DNA RECOMBINATION:- Genetic exchange works constantly to blend and rearrange chromosomes, most obviously during meiosis, when homologous chromosomes pair before the first nuclear division. During this pairing, genetic exchange between the chromosomes occurs. This exchange, classically termed crossing over, is one of the results of homologous recombination. Recombination involves the physical exchange of

DNA REPLICATION The ability of a cell to survive and proliferate in a chaotic environment depends on the accurate duplication of the vast quantity of genetic information carried in its DNA. This duplication process, called DNA replication, must occur before a cell can divide to produce two genetically identical daughter cells. Maintaining order in a

DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid Everybody of us might have heard about this phrases like “its in your genes”, “ genes transfer information”, “ genes are responsible for similarities of parents with their offspring”, so and so and so. Now the question rises what are these genes?  How they carry so much of information? And the

NUCLEOTIDES Nucleotides also plays a vital role in metabolism at a fundamental, cellular level. They provide chemical energy—in the form of the nucleoside triphosphates, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), guanosine triphosphate (GTP), cytidine triphosphate (CTP) and uridine triphosphate (UTP)—throughout the cell for the many cellular functions that demand energy, In addition, nucleotides participate in cell signaling (cyclic guanosine monophosphate or cGMP and cyclic adenosine monophosphate or cAMP), and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions

STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN :- There are numerous ways in which protein can be necessary for our body. There are different ways in which any polypeptide can arrange to form functional structure for protein. Without this proper confirmation protein will not be able to attain its functional form. Disulfide bonds play a role

STRUCTURE OF AMINO ACIDS AND PEPTIDE Amino Acids and peptide From our genes to enzyme, blood to hairs and many endless things on earth are made up of proteins. Now the question rises what makes proteins? Answer is what we are about to discuss that is amino acid and peptide bonds so this amino acid